Ethnobotany of traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women in Madda Walabu District, Bale Zone, Southeastern Ethiopia

Traditional cosmetics play a significant role in the cultural practices and personal hygiene of many ethnic groups worldwide. The Oromo, an indigenous community in Ethiopia, has a rich history of utilizing local plants for cosmetic purposes. However, the use of plants as traditional cosmetics has only been poorly investigated as more emphasis was given to traditional medicines. The study thus aimed to identify and document plant species, and parts used in traditional cosmetics and associated knowledge, and practices among Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district, Southeastern Ethiopia. A total of 150 Oromo women were interviewed to gather ethnobotanical information including the plant species used for cosmetics, their preparation methods, and their applications. Ethnobotanical indices were computed to determine the most important species used by the women. A total of 48 plant species belonging to 31 families used as sources of traditional cosmetics were recorded. Most of these plants were trees. Leaves were the most commonly used plant part in traditional cosmetics, and maceration and decoction were the most common preparation methods applied to prepare traditional cosmetics. Topical application of traditional cosmetics was the most common, while oral infusions were rarely reported type of administration. All categories had high informant consensus factor (ICF) values, ranging from 0.80 to 0.98. The highest ICF value was found for skin treatment, followed by the hair, and face mask. Overall, Commiphora habessinica, Gnidia stenophylla, Kalanchoe lanceolata, Mimusops kummel, Sesamothamnus rivae, Terminalia brownii, T. laxiflora, Acacia drepanolobium, A. mellifera, and Aloe citrina were the most frequently cited and culturally important plants by Oromo women for traditional cosmetics in the area. The study highlights the importance of local plant resources for maintaining cultural practices and personal hygiene. However, the cultural heritage associated with traditional cosmetics is facing threats from various factors. Therefore, a continuous effort to document and disseminate knowledge about traditional cosmetics practices to ensure their preservation and transmission and awakening younger generations about the importance of traditional cosmetics and their role in cultural heritage is crucial.


Introduction
Historical pieces of evidence revealed that human beings have been using traditional cosmetics for thousands of years (6000 BC) to enhance their natural beauty, for protection of their skin, care for teeth, and decorate their skin for cultural and religious purposes [1].In many countries around the world, traditional societies have always used natural substances such as plant extracts for several reasons including skin protection against the sun, and skin beauty, as well as for conveying messages of tribal identity [2,3].Egypt was a pioneer country in the use of plants for cosmetics that goes back to the age of Pharaohs [4,5], and the Romans, the Greeks, and the Arabs, through the medieval and Elizabethan periods and into modern times [5,6].
The demand for beauty products such as soaps, face washes, shampoos, conditioners, skin lotions, toners, astringents, cold creams and other moisturizing formulations, perfumes, hair colors, dyes, powders, eye and face packs, etc., has been growing globally requiring trilliondollar investment [7].Cosmetic-pharmaceutical products were intended to improve not only the beauty but also the health of individuals [8].On the other hand, due to their potential negative health effects in recent years, cosmetic products of synthetic origin have been widely criticized which has increased interest in the use of traditional cosmetics as they are considered less toxic, effective, and believed to contain antioxidants [9].Most of these cosmetics were prepared from plants.Traditional cosmetics are natural cosmetics into which no synthetic chemical ingredients are added and made locally by the members of the ethnic group.Even today, traditional cosmetics are in use in many developing countries and Ethiopia is no exception.In preparing traditional cosmetics, different ethnic groups in the world have been using different species of plants.Furthermore, cross-culturally, the use of cosmetics is more common among women than men.This arises from the potential interest of women to attract their male partners and to a rival competition [10].Moreover, the use of cosmetics makes women appear healthier, more attractive, and more feminine [8].
In any culture, the knowledge and practices of ethnobiology vary by, ethnicity, religion, profession, educational background, social status and relations, income class, age, and gender [11].Women are likely the most important in the management of plant biodiversity in biodiversity-rich regions including Ethiopia [12,13].
The indigenous knowledge of the preparation and use of traditional cosmetics has a long history.This knowledge has been transferred from generation to generation orally [14].With the increasing development of technologies, however, the knowledge of these traditional cosmetics has been decreasing [9].In addition, plant diversity from which these cosmetics are believed to be made is also depleting globally due to anthropogenic factors such as the expansion of agriculture in addition to the invisibility of the environmental benefits that are derived from women's biodiversity management [15].Furthermore, the use of plants as traditional cosmetics has only been poorly investigated in different regions including Ethiopia [16,17] as more emphasis was given to traditional medicines despite their important role in the economy, improvement of beauty, and minimizing health risks of synthetic cosmetics.Thus, the objective of this study was to identify and document plant species, and parts used in traditional cosmetics and associated knowledge, and practices including methods of preparation and administration among Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district.

Study area
The study was conducted in Madda Walabu district, Bale Zone, Oromia National Regional State, Southeastern Ethiopia, located between 9º44′32″and 9º46′26″N and 39º 44′00″and 39º 47′19″E (Fig. 1).It is located at about 630 km from Addis Ababa and 200 km from the zone capital (Robe town) in the Southeast.The majority of the inhabitants in the district are Oromo in ethnic group and Muslim in religion.The total population of the district is 140,893 (Male = 70,540 and Female = 70,353) [18].The rainfall is bimodal, with the main rainy season occurring from early March through June and the short rain from late September through November.There are five dry months in the area, i.e., January, February, July, August, and December [19].The most common agricultural system in the district is mixed farming with livestock and subsistence agriculture forming the major livelihoods of the rural community [20].The vegetation type of the district is mainly Acacia-Commiphora woodland and Combretum-Terminalia woodlands [21].
We focused on Madda Walabu district because of its historical remark on the history of the Oromo people.The word "Madda Walabu" means Gadaa revival, the foundation of Oromo civilization and the birthplace of the Gadaa system.The Gadaa system is an ancient and indigenous democratic system of governance used by the Oromos in Ethiopia and northern Kenya) [22].Gadaa system has been registered as one of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO since 2016 [23].In Oromo, the Gadaa system is responsible for regulating political stability, economic growth, social services, cultural commitments, and the ethical contract of the religious order [24].Oromo women had an influential position in the past.For instance, the wife of the designated Gadaa leader known as "Abbaa Gadaa" is equitably treated like the Abbaa Gadaa himself.Besides "Siinqee" feminists represent women in the Gadaa system, although this has now declined following the decline in the people's indigenous cultural practices [25].Oromo is the most dominant ethnic group in the area and is the most populous ethnic group in the country [26] accounting for approximately 40% of the currently estimated 110 million total population of the country [27].

Data collection
A total of 150 informants (all of whom are women) were selected purposively to obtain high-quality and reliable information [28].The selection of informants was based on the recommendations of elders and local authorities.Data collection was focused on three villages (Hora Kore, Aba Sirba, and Medacho) (Table 1) of the Madda Walabu district due to their experiences in the use of traditional cosmetics.All the respondents were living in rural areas and from a variety of socioeconomic strata, with knowledge of traditional cosmetics.Data including the local names of the plant species used for traditional cosmetics, their preparation, and administration methods were collected using semi-structured interviews from June to August 2021.Plant specimens collected during the fieldwork were identified using the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea.Furthermore, we used the Plants of the World Online [29] website to confirm the names of the species and their respective classification of genus and family, and finally, all voucher specimens were coded in the field, brought, and deposited in the teaching herbarium of Madda Walabu University for further investigation and later use.

Fidelity level
The level of fidelity (Fl) was computed to determine the most important plant species used by women for traditional cosmetics employing the formula used in [30].
where IP is the number of informants who independently suggested the use of a species for a particular use category Iu is the total number of informants who mentioned the plant for any use category.
The more the value of FL is close to 1, the higher the number of informants that used this plant species for that particular use.This index answers the question: "Which use is associated with this particular plant?"Moreover, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the difference in the use of traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women based on their sociodemographic features such as age, level of education, marital status, and occupation.Free R software was used for all the analyses [31].

Informant consensus factor
The informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated to assess the variability of plant usage in cosmetics within each of the ten categories using the formula used in [32] where Nur is the number of usages reported for a category.
Nt is the number of plant species reported to be used in that particular category.
ICF values vary between 0 and 1 and a value close to 1 indicates strong consensus among informants, that is, a large proportion of the informants use the same species for the same purpose.When close to 0, the IFC value indicates a strong disagreement among informants.

Relative frequency of citations and cultural importance index
The relative frequency of citations that do not consider the use category for traditional cosmetic plant species used by Oromo women was calculated using the following formula [33].
where RFCs = relative frequency of citations, FCs = frequency of citations, and N = the number of informants participating in the survey.

Cultural importance index
The cultural importance index can be seen as the sum of the proportion of informants that mention each species use.It is an additive index used to determine the spread of the use of plant species and the diversity of its use and calculated using the formula [33]: where CIs cultural importance index, UR use report, N the number of informants who participated in the survey, and NC total number of use categories.

Demographic characteristics of the informants
In the study, although the age of the participants ranged from 20 to 75 years, most of the respondents were above 50 years old.Concerning education, the majority of the participants did not attend formal education at all and attended primary education.Most of the respondents were married and housewives in occupation (Table 2).

Composition of plant species used as a traditional cosmetic in Madda Walabu district
A total of 48 plant species belonging to 39 genera and 31 families were recorded as a source of traditional cosmetics among Oromo women in the Madda Walabu District of Bale Zone (Appendix Table 10).The most common family was Fabaceae represented by six species followed by Bigonaceae, Burseraceae, and Combretaceae (Table 3; Appendix Table 10).

Traditional cosmetics Plant parts and growth forms of traditional cosmetics
The most common plant parts used in the preparation of traditional cosmetics were leaves followed by barks, and wood from the stem, whereas plant parts such as seeds, fruits, and resins were rarely used.Trees were found to be the most frequent source of traditional cosmetics in the study area followed by shrubs (in life forms (Fig. 2; Table 4).

Methods of preparation and administration
Maceration and decoction were the most common methods used to prepare plant-based traditional cosmetics (Fig. 3A; Table 4).These methods were usually used by the Oromo women to soften and extract materials that can be used in the production and beautification of the skin, and hair.Furthermore, smoking was also mentioned as a common method, particularly in   the use of traditional cosmetics such as perfume.Traditional cosmetics are applied to different parts of the body.Moreover, these natural-based cosmetics are mainly administered topically (88%) while oral infusions were not common (12%) (Table 4).The participant highlighted that plants used for natural-based cosmetics may be administered as a powder (leaves, root, or wood powder) through different mechanisms depending on the need for beautification.

Cosmetic use category and application areas
Most of the categories (i.e., three fourth) had high mean fidelity levels for particular use values, ranging from 72.73 to 92, 03% (Fig. 4A).The highest mean FL value was recorded for use as hair cream, followed by hair health and hand decorative; and skin and face mask were the 4th and 5th, respectively (Table 5).The traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district were used for care and beautifying skin followed by teeth hygiene, face cleaning, and masks (Fig. 4B).

Cosmetic applications of plants in the study area
Eight plant species were cited by one-third of the informants as main cosmetic plants (Table 5).Terminalia brownii Fresen.was the most cited traditional cosmetic plant used as hair cream followed by Aloe citrine, used for skin care, and Olea europaea L. subsp.cuspidata (Wall.ex G. Don) (Table 5).However, when taking each category of usage into account, the most cited plants were different.For example, Terminalia

The fidelity level of a species for a particular use
In the study, greater cosmetic usage citations were exhibited in the fidelity level (FL) revealing the importance of a species for a particular use.Nineteen fidelity level values higher than 88% related to use-species associations known by more than half of the informants (Table 6; Appendix Table 11).Thus 19 species and nine cosmetic uses appeared to be particularly linked.Fidelity levels were high (> 80% of FL) for several species (Appendix Table 11).The highest FL score was recorded for Terminalia brownii Fresen.used for the beautification of hair followed by Terminalia laxiflora Engl.& Diels.for skin care, Sesamothamnus rivae Engl.for skin care, Olea europaea L. subsp.cuspidata (Wall.ex G. Don) for hair cream, and Aloe citrina Carter & Brandham for skin care (Table 6; Appendix Table 11).

Informant consensus factor (ICF)
To compute the informant consensus factor values, cosmetic use categories of the study area were grouped into 10 categories (Table 7; Fig. 4A).All categories had high informant consensus factor values, ranging from 0.92  to 0.96.Specifically, face clearance and mask scored the highest ICF value, followed by hair treatment (Table 7).
The traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women in Madda Walabu District were thus used to care for and beautify the face, followed by hair and skin (Table 7).

Relative frequency of citations and cultural importance index
The most frequently cited being used as traditional cosmetics and considered more culturally important by the Oromo women in the study area was Terminalia brownii followed by Aloe citrine, Terminalia laxiflora (Table 8; Appendix Table 12).

Sociodemographic factors in the use of traditional cosmetics among Oromo women
There were highly significant differences in the number of plant species used as traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women with different ages (F = 70.6 p < 0.001), level of education, (F = , 154.0 p < 0.001), marital status (F = 68.4p < 0.001), and occupation (F = , 45.4 p < 0.001).
Older women mentioned more plant species used as traditional cosmetics than younger ones.Women who did not attend formal education were found to be retaining indigenous plant use knowledge more than educated ones.Moreover, married and housewives were found to have extensive traditional knowledge compared to other married status-employed women in the study area (Fig. 5).

Traditional knowledge and cultural practices
The respondents made clear that traditional knowledge about natural-based cosmetics is widely spread among the Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district although they do not regularly exchange knowledge with other communities around.The Oromo women played a primary role in the preparation and administration of natural-based cosmetics.Their homemade remedies were prepared for the whole community who require different forms of preparations such as poultices or compresses.Some plant species that are used for natural-based cosmetics among the Oromo women are also used as an aspect of healing.Hence, the Oromo women who were knowledgeable articulated that natural-based cosmetics are an interdisciplinary practice that heals and promotes the beauty of the skin.Respondents mentioned that plant species are collected throughout the year, and seasonality only plays a role when plant parts such as fruits or leaves are to be collected.It was observed that the Oromo women who were knowledgeable about natural-based cosmetics harvested and carried as many plants as they could when they went out for collection.The decision to have the large collection at once is due to the long distance they had to travel for the collection and the increasing scarcity of certain plant species.Moreover, the respondents mentioned that large collections of scarce species are recently threatening the species.Despite the presence of gender divisions for different activities because of cultural restrictions, the majority of women respondents mentioned that there were no taboos associated with nature-based cosmetic plant collection and uses in the study area.

Description of particular care types among Oromo women
Intimate hygiene is typical of the Oromo women in Oromia which is called qayyachuu in Afan Oromo.Care of private parts through fumigation is very important for women, particularly for married women.These treatments are preventive actions to avoid bad smells, limit vaginal discharges, and can arouse the woman; making her ready for sexual activities.For the fumigation process,

Composition of plants used in traditional cosmetics in Madda Walabu district
Despite the present study describing and documenting plants used as traditional cosmetics, these plants can be used for both cosmetic and medicinal purposes, and there can be some overlaps between these two categories in many cultures [34][35][36].However, there are some key distinctions between the two: cosmetic applications are mainly used to enhance physical appearance or hygiene and may have some minor therapeutic effects, but are not intended primarily for treating medical conditions.Examples: moisturizers, hair conditioners, soaps, and perfumes [37].Thus, the study mainly focused on the cosmetic role of the plants even though these plants can have medicinal applications in addition.The primary purpose of the plant applications was determined based on the information provided by the informants.Thus, based on the informants' response, if the plant was primarily used to enhance physical appearance or hygiene, it was classified as a cosmetic application.
In various parts of the world including Ethiopia, many plant species are commonly used locally for the preparations of traditional cosmetics but have not been scientifically investigated for wider use [38].This implies a need to collect and compile indigenous knowledge of plant-based traditional cosmetics among ethnic groups, specifically, the Oromo (largest ethnic group in Ethiopia) women of Bale lowland in this study.Accordingly, a total of 48 plant species used as traditional cosmetics were recorded of which Fabaceae, Bigonaceae, and Burseraceae were the most frequent families.The study thus revealed that there is a great diversity of plants for cosmetic use, which could be useful documentation, contributing to preserving the knowledge about the traditional cosmetic use of plants in this region.Consequently, the ethnobotanical study of these species reveals that the Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district possess a deep knowledge of local plants and their cosmetic applications.The traditional cosmetics they use reflect their cultural heritage and their connection to the natural environment.The study contributes to the documentation of ethnobotanical knowledge and provides insights into the potential for developing sustainable cosmetic products based on traditional practices.
The study documented a relatively higher number of species specifically used as traditional cosmetics compared to other similar studies (Table 9).This high number of species could be attributed to the varied agroecology and climatic conditions of our study area that supported a variety of plant species.A comparison of the species number discovered in different countries is presented below.
Moreover, the top rank of Fabaceae which aligns with other studies [39], as a source of local cosmetics is not surprising for several reasons.First, Fabaceae is among the most species-rich families (3rd) in the flora area of the country [44,45].The same is true for the Burseraceae family since the vegetation of the study area is mainly Acacia commiphora woodlands [21].The potential importance of the species as cosmetics in this family could therefore be a result of its representation in the flora of the area.Second, in neighboring districts with similar agroecology such as Dallo Manna [46] and Gura Damole districts [47], Fabaceae was found to contain many medicinal plants.However, the strange thing was that Lamiaceae which contains many cosmetic and medicinal plants that are of global importance [40,48] was only represented by one species in the study area.The variation could be attributed to the differences in agroecology.Moreover, similar to other studies in Africa (tropical) that focused on traditional cosmetics [39][40][41], trees were the most commonly used plant life forms followed by shrubs and herbs.The high usage of such plant life forms in Madda Walabu is also likely associated with the tropical climate region which, in turn, helps the plants to be widely available and abundant in the study area.

Plant parts used and use category
Among a range of plant organs used in the study area, leaves are the parts that are most commonly used in traditional cosmetics which are in line with other studies [39,40,46,47].The preference for leaves as a major source of cosmetics could be asserted by the fact that they are not only easy to collect, store, and process during most of the year but also are the site of photosynthesis and sometimes the storage of bioactive ingredients responsible for the cosmetic properties of the plant helping beautification [49,50].The use of leaves as traditional cosmetics encourages conservation practices, unlike the extensive use of roots and barks which may cause the death of plants.However, reports from some other studies revealed that fruits were the most commonly used plant parts as cosmetics among women [2,51].The difference could be attributed to the variations in indigenous knowledge on plant-based cosmetics differing across different communities and ethnic groups globally.
A greater number of citations for cosmetic applications are exhibited in the fidelity level.In the current study, about 19 species were found to have FL values of greater than 88% suggesting that the state of knowledge of the informants is more or less common when it comes to the uses of such plants.However, species such as Terminalia brownii Fresen and Olea europaea L. subsp.cuspidata (Wall.ex G. Don for hair treatment and Terminalia laxiflora Engl.& Diels and Sesamothamnus rivae Engl.for skincare were the most frequently cited species among the Oromo women in the study area.Moreover, from the computation of relative frequency citations and cultural importance index, these same species were found to be the most frequently cited for use as traditional cosmetics and considered culturally more important among the Oromo women in the district.This could be due to their availability.For example, the genus Terminalia is the second largest genus of Combretaceae and is widely distributed in Eastern African countries such as Ethiopia [52].Propagation can occur naturally through seeds or vegetative methods using wild plants, seedlings, tree stumps, or young plants [53].Terminalia spp.provides economic, medical, spiritual, and social benefits in Ethiopia [54].Similarly, Aloes are recognized as an important component of the dry-land ecosystems, primary colonizers of habitats that might enable later habitation by other less resilient plants.Areas that experience prolonged drought can benefit from the planting of Aloe [55].Aloes are used in soap production, jute sack production, and hair washing [56].The other reason could be related to their use, for skincare in which the skin is the largest organ exposed to external barrier, requires frequent care and treatment [40,41,57].FL is a measure of the degree of effectiveness of the cosmetic plant for beautification.Thus, traditional cosmetic plants having high fidelity level values are speculated to be effective in their beautification potential and can be a good candidate for further detailed investigation.Although [17] reported the FL values of some of the aforementioned species for their medicinal aspect, no literature has documented their FL scores for cosmetic uses as the present study is the first of its kind in the area and also due to variations of the use of plants from area to area.From informant consensus factor analysis, high FIC values suggested that Oromo women in the community share knowledge about the most significant plant species of traditional cosmetics commonly used for beautification and low FIC values indicate less willingness to share knowledge of significant plant species of traditional cosmetics for beautification for women [58].From the current study, although all the usage categories had higher values, face care has the highest FIC which further substantiates the heavy reliance of Oromo women of Madda Walabu district on plant-based traditional cosmetics.

Method of preparations and mode of application
As documented in other ethnobotanical studies in Bale [59], diverse methods of preparation were observed in the current study.Accordingly, maceration and decoction were the most frequently used preparation methods among the participants.This goes in line with other similar studies where decocting or concocting was mostly the more common way of preparation [50].Furthermore, in the current study, most of the products of traditional cosmetics were administered topically which aligns with other several studies [57,60].This route of administration was demonstrated with eleven different cosmetic applications.Remarkably, this proves the certainty that plant species are intensely entrenched in the cosmetic globe with different kinds of cosmetic uses.Applications of natural-based cosmetics such as a paste, powder, or sap (topically) were also in alignment with the findings [34].

Plant-based traditional cosmetics and Oromo women's indigenous knowledge
The current study revealed significant variations in the number of plant species used as traditional cosmetics among Oromo women of different ages.Accordingly, older women mentioned and used more plant species as traditional cosmetics for beautification than younger ones.This aligns with the findings of [2] and [40] indicating that indigenous knowledge of plant-based traditional cosmetics is not equally distributed among the different age groups of women.Thus, the study revealed a wellestablished indigenous knowledge of plant-based cosmetics among the Oromo women but seems to decline with age which could be attributed to the low interest of the younger generation to inherit and use traditional cosmetics.The other finding of the current study is that Oromo women, who didn't attend formal education, are married, and housewives have more extensive knowledge of traditional cosmetics than students, educated and employed.This could be due to the inspiration of the younger women, educated and employed ones by intensive media campaigns and advertisements of synthetic cosmetics that might have resulted in decreasing interest in using natural cosmetics [2].Thus, due to the declining trends of the use of plant-based traditional cosmetics in the younger generation, which was also supported by other studies [61], there is an urgent need to preserve the indigenous knowledge of the Oromo women of Madda Walabu district.We suggest that the younger generation should be trained and made aware of the importance, of sustainable utilization as well as the domestication of precious plant-based traditional cosmetics.
The type of occupation also plays a major role in the use of herbal cosmetics.We discovered that housewives use more cosmetic plants for their skin, face, hair, and teeth hygiene than women who work outside of the home.Housewives tend to have less income than working women, hence their higher interest in cheaper cosmetics.Similar studies in Egypt reported that herbal remedies are much more common among lower-income groups, such as students, housewives, and non-literate women [40].On the contrary, the results of the study that took place in Finland revealed that women who had relatively high social status were the most interested in herbal remedies and cosmetics [62], suggesting that knowledge and use of herbal remedies may be context-specific.On the other hand, [63] reported that knowledge of medicinal plants was not related to age or gender in Brazil.
Besides the regular application of plant-based natural cosmetics, Oromo women knowledgeable about traditional cosmetics indicated that the different types of plant species are inspired mainly by their culture, and cosmetic products are mainly used in cultural practices such as traditional healing and skin-related issues.In contrast to other studies [58] that restrict outdoor activities including plant gathering from wild to men, our study revealed that nature-based cosmetic plant collection was carried out by women which aligns with [39].
Concerning traditional knowledge and cultural practices, the Oromo women made clear that their homemade cosmetics were prepared for the whole community and required different forms of preparation.Moreover, the knowledgeable respondents articulated that naturalbased cosmetics are interdisciplinary practices that heal and promote the beauty of skin which is in line with [17].
Furthermore, the current study revealed that cosmetics play a significant role in cultural identity and expression.The use of specific plants for cosmetic purposes is often associated with cultural norms, values, and beliefs.For Oromo women, the use of traditional cosmetics is a way to express their cultural identity and connect with their heritage.For example, there was particular care for intimate hygiene which is typical of the Oromo women in the area that is called qayyachuu in Afan Oromo.It is the means of caring for private parts (vagina) through smoking and fumigation, particularly for married women which align with [17] but with a different name, woyeba chis meaning smoking bath in northern Ethiopia.The treatments are used to avoid bad smells, limit vaginal discharges, and can arouse the woman, making her ready for sexual activities.The wood materials for qayyachuu are mainly prepared from the mix of the barks and branches from plant species such as Commiphora baluensis Engl.C. habessinica (Berg) Engl.and C. myrrha (Nees) Engl.

Conclusions
The study described the cosmetic flora of the Madda Walabu district of Bale Zone with its uses.The ethnobotanical study focusing on traditional cosmetics is the first of its kind to be conducted among Oromo women in Ethiopia.A total of 48 plants belonging to 31 families used in traditional cosmetics were investigated, and eight plant species were cited by one-third of the informants as the main cosmetic plants.The traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district were thus used to care for and beautify the face, followed by hair and skin.The most frequent part of the plant used for the preparation of traditional cosmetics was the leaves followed by barks, and wood from the stem.The preparation for the cosmetics was through maceration and decoction which were used to soften and extract the production used as traditional cosmetics.Furthermore, smoking was also mentioned as a common method, particularly in the use of traditional cosmetics such as perfume.
Findings from this study indicated the rich plant biodiversity in terms of the high number of plants used for traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women.Furthermore, women's information regarding the plant used as a traditional cosmetic was highly credible.Traditional cosmetics play a significant role in cultural identity and expression.The use of specific plants for cosmetic purposes is often associated with cultural norms, values, and beliefs.For Oromo women, the use of traditional cosmetics is a way to express their cultural identity and connect with their heritage.Additionally, traditional cosmetic practices can empower women by providing them with a sense of agency and control over their appearance.The use of natural ingredients and the knowledge of how to prepare and apply cosmetics give women a sense of pride and confidence.However, the cultural heritage associated with traditional cosmetics is facing threats from various factors, including: the influx of modern cosmetics and beauty products inspired by intensive media campaigns and advertisements.Thus, educating younger generations about the importance of traditional cosmetics and their role in cultural heritage, and supporting community-led initiatives to revitalize traditional cosmetic practices and promote their cultural significance is crucial.Moreover, the over-exploitation of plant resources for cosmetic purposes can lead to environmental degradation and the loss of biodiversity.Thus, promoting sustainable harvesting practices to ensure the availability of plant resources for future generations should not be ignored.The continuation and preservation of this traditional knowledge ensure the preservation of valuable cultural heritage and promote the potential for sustainable development in the region.
The study mainly focused on the cosmetic application of the plants even though these plants can have medicinal values.Therefore, we recommend amplified research in future and assessing multipurpose ethnobotanical use values since our study is an eye opener for the study area and aimed to mainly investigate cosmetical aspects.

Fig. 1
Fig. 1 Map of the study area

Fig. 2
Fig. 2 Proportion of A plants parts, B growth forms of plant species used as a traditional cosmetic among the Oromo women in the study area

FrequencyFig. 3
Fig. 3 Methods of preparation A and major use categories B of the plant-based traditional cosmetics products among Oromo women in Madda Walabu District of Bale Zone

Fig. 4
Fig. 4 Major cosmetic use categories A and the main cosmetic body application areas B among the Oromo women in the study area

a
small hole is made inside the home where wood material is placed on a fire and women cover their bodies with a cloth below their necks.The wood materials for qayyachuu are mainly prepared from the mix of the barks and branches from plant species such as Commiphora baluensis Engl.C. habessinica (Berg) Engl.and C. myrrha (Nees) Engl.These intimate care treatments are only for the female gender.

Fig. 5
Fig. 5 Variation in the use of traditional cosmetics based on A age, B level of education, C marital status, and D occupation among the Oromo women in Madda Walabu District, Bale Zone, Southeastern Ethiopia

Table 1
Population and mean altitudes (see also Appendix Table13) of each of the three villages used to collect ethnobotanical data of traditional cosmetics among the Oromo Women in Madda Walabu District of Bale Zone, Oromia Regional State, Southeastern Ethiopia

Table 2
Demographic characteristics of the female respondents (i.e., Oromo women) in Madda Walabu district, Bale Zone, Southeastern Ethiopia

Table 3
List of plant families with their frequency

Table 4
Plant species, voucher number (V.No.), family, parts used (PU), methods of preparation (MP), use category (UC), and application area (AP) for traditional cosmetics by Oromo women in Madda Walabu district, Southeastern Ethiopia

Table 4
(continued) laxiflora Engl.&Diels.were the most cited in the skincare category, Rhus natalensis Krauss in the keeping teeth hygiene, Combretum adenogonium Steud.ex A. Rich. in the face clearance, Cordia monoica Roxb. in the vaginal health, and Ehretia cymosa Thonn. in the category of hand decorative (Table 5; Appendix Table 11).

Table 5
The main cosmetic plants cited by most of the informants in the study area (GF growth form, No.C number of citations and No.C(%) percentages of number of citations)

Table 6
Plants with high fidelity level values (> 88%) against cosmetic use category of Oromo women in Madda Walabu district, Southeastern Ethiopia (FL fidelity level, Ip number of informants who independently cited the importance of a species for treating a particular use category, Iu total number of informants who reported the plant for any given use category)

Table 7
Cosmetic use category and informant consensus factor of Oromo women in Madda Walabu district, Southeastern Ethiopia

Table 8
Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and cultural important index (CII) of the most relevant nine plant species in traditional cosmetics use among the Oromo women in the Madda Walabu district, Southeastern Ethiopia

Table 9
Number of plant species used as a traditional cosmetic reported in different countries

Table 10
List of plants used as traditional cosmetics among Oromo women in Madda Walabu District of Bale Zone, Southeast Ethiopia, where GF growth form, T tree, S shrub, and H herb

Table 11
List of plant species and parts used (PU), method of preparation (MPPn.),administration, use category (UC), area of applications (AAPs), Ip (number of informants mentioned for a particular use) Iu (number of informants mentioned for any use, fidelity level in percentages (FL%), total number of cited (TNuC), and ratio of number of use cited (NuC) in the study area

Table 12
Relative frequency of citation and cultural importance index of plant species used in a traditional cosmetic among the Oromo Women in Madda Walabu District, Bale Zone, Southeast Ethiopia

Table 13
Names, coordinates, and altitudes of visited locations to collect data on the ethnobotany of traditional cosmetics among the Oromo women in the selected three villages of Madda Walabu district, Bale Zone, Southeast Ethiopia